Discover J.R.R. Tolkien’s Personal Book Cover Designs for The Lord of the Rings Trilogy

in Art, Books, Design, Literature | September 3rd, 2026

In some rare cases, adaptations and interpretations of a literary work can surpass the source. Despite hundreds of valiant efforts on the part of fans, filmmakers, game/toy designers, and radio producers, this has never been true of the fully-realized fantasy world in J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings trilogy (not that it’s ever been anyone’s intent). As we noted in a previous post, Tolkien’s fictional world is so intricate, its sources so vast and varied, that Corey Olsen, “The Tolkien Professor,” has made it his entire life’s work to open that world up to students and curious readers, such as with his eight-part lecture series on The Hobbit.

One might also add illustrators to the list of Tolkien interpreters above who have—in the almost ninety years since The Hobbit’s publication and more than seventy years since the first appearance of The Lord of the Rings trilogy—done their best to visualize Tolkien’s world. But perhaps no one did so better than the master himself. Long known as a visual artist as well as a literary one, Tolkien left behind over 100 illustrations for The Hobbit, one of which adorns 2011’s HarperCollins 75th anniversary edition of the book. He also created these original cover designs for each book in The Lord of the Rings trilogy.

In the long and complex publication history of Tolkien’s most famous of works, it’s unclear if these designs ever made it onto books published during his lifetime, but the sigil in the center of The Fellowship of the Ring design (above), with its ominous eye of Sauron surrounded by elvish runes and topped by the one ring, did grace the elegant, minimalist covers of the first edition of the trilogy. Tolkien’s artwork received a thorough treatment in a 1995 monograph J.R.R. Tolkien Artist & Illustrator, which covers over 60 years of Tolkien’s life as an artist, and the magic of flickr brings us this compendium of Tolkien illustrations.

Note: An earlier version of this post appeared on our site in 2013.

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Josh Jones is a writer and musician based in Durham, NC.

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Why AI Companies Are Buying—And Then Destroying—Old Books

in Books, Technology | August 28th, 2026

We’ve long joked about delaying bedtime in order to read the entire internet, but the prospect of actually doing so doesn’t sound as appealing as it used to. An ever-growing proportion of text online, we may sense, hasn’t been written by humans, but generated by artificial intelligence. One solution is to return to reading on paper, and beyond that, spending our time only with books published before the advent — and thus uncorrupted by the output — of large language models. Ironically, that’s what large language models themselves have had to do, and in order to ensure them a steady diet of manmade text, their owners are resorting to controversially destructive methods.

Suspicions first arose when book dealers noticed a spike in their income due to large orders from mysterious buyers for titles they assumed they’d never unload. Books on home oxygen treatment in Italy, marriage litigation in medieval England, Texas civil procedure in the twenty-tens, Swedish comedy in the sixties: these entities bought them all, and for whatever price the seller happened to be asking.

404 Media reporter Emanuel Maiberg tracked the path of one such book, which eventually wound up at a Las Vegas scanning facility run by Amazon. Though undergirded by advanced technology, the work done there is simple: digitize as many books as possible, then destroy them.

“In order to scan them really fast, they cut the spines off the books and fed the pages to the scanner,” Maiberg explained to NPR. Many are technically rare, albeit esoteric obscurities like vanity publications and old instruction manuals rather than first-edition classics. Humans may not value them, but LLMs do: their consumption forestalls “a problem called model collapse, where if an AI trains on AI training data, it gets worse.” Amazon and Anthropic have both been found to use the book-sacrificing method to harvest text, but every company with models to train needs a solution. All this makes for “an unusually on-the-nose example of digital technology devouring literary culture,” as the Wall Street Journal’s Melissa Korn puts it. But when you really have read the entire internet, perhaps extreme measures are inevitable.

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Based in Seoul, Colin Marshall writes and broadcasts on cities, language, and culture. He’s the author of the newsletter Books on Cities as well as the books 한국 요약 금지 (No Summarizing Korea) and Korean Newtro. Follow him on the social network formerly known as Twitter at @colinmarshall.

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The Art of Splendor Solis, the Most Glorious Illuminated Alchemical Manuscript of Them All

in Books, History | August 27th, 2026

When it was published in the United States in 1998, Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone was retitled Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone. The jokes about the American reading public’s apparent allergy to the very word philosopher write themselves, but the change was also unfortunate for more substantial reasons. A “sorcerer’s stone” had no cultural resonance at all, whereas the philosopher’s stone had been sought after since, at the very latest, the dawn of the fourth century. Some sources claim that human knowledge of it goes all the way back to Adam, who got the word directly from God. In any case, it’s no mystery why the philosopher’s stone has long captured the collective imagination of humanity, given that it’s reputed to turn lead into gold.

Among the rumored possessors of the philosopher’s stone throughout history is Salomon Trismosin, a sixteenth-century Renaissance alchemist who taught the influential physician Paracelsus. He’s also credited, at least in legends, with writing Splendor Solis, a book once no less desirable than the next Harry Potter volume in that series’ heyday.

Nothing so mundane as “a list of instructions for whipping up a little alchemical soup in the hope of finding a nugget of artificial gold in the pot at the end,” writes Jörg Völlnagel at Medievalists.net, it rather “sets forth the philosophy of alchemy, a world view according to which the human being (the alchemist) exists and acts in harmony with nature, respecting divine creation and at the same time intervening in the processes underlying that creation, all the while supporting its growth with the help of alchemy.”

As “a — or rather the – prime example of an illuminated alchemical manuscript,” Splendor Solis has drawn the fascination of even such modern figures as William Butler Yeats, James Joyce, and Umberto Eco. It also became an important work in the symbolic-cultural universe of Carl Jung, who, according to the Association of Jungian Analysts, “recognized the alchemical motifs and symbols as expressions of the individuation process, the transformation and integration of the psyche. Splendor Solis, with its rich symbolism and profound allegories, resonated with Jung’s understanding of the archetypal imagery and the transformative nature of the human psyche, contributing to his theories on analytical psychology.”

None of this is to say that Jung, or many other esteemed intellectuals of the past couple of centuries, believed that base metals really could be transmuted to gold and silver. But they did understand that the phenomenon of alchemy has much to reveal about the irresolvable existential negotiation between man and the world he inhabits. It resonates so deeply that it’s even worked in children’s literature, and to great commercial success at that. You can even feel some of it just by gazing upon Splendor Solis’ 22 gold-highlighted, book-of-hours-style illustrations at the web site of M. Moleiro, publisher of one facsimile edition. And who knows? If, as in the world of Harry Potter, the philosopher’s stone also grants immortality, perhaps Salomon Trismosin still walks somewhere among us.

You can view pages of Splendor Solis on Wikipedia. Enter the image gallery here.

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Based in Seoul, Colin Marshall writes and broadcasts on cities, language, and culture. He’s the author of the newsletter Books on Cities as well as the books 한국 요약 금지 (No Summarizing Korea) and Korean Newtro. Follow him on the social network formerly known as Twitter at @colinmarshall.

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Isaac Asimov Explains His Three Laws of Robots: Do No Harm, Follow Orders, Survive, in That Order

in Books, Sci Fi | August 27th, 2026

A number of futurists, philosophers, and technophiles believe we are approaching what they call the “singularity”: a point in time when smart machines become much smarter, stronger, and faster than their creators, and then become self-conscious. Whatever the chance of this occurring, it’s worthwhile to ponder the consequences. But we do already, all the time—in existentially bleak scenarios like Blade Runner, the Terminator series, the rebooted Battlestar Galactica (and its failed prequel Caprica).

The prospects are never pleasant. Robotic engineers in these worlds hardly seem to bother teaching their machines the kind of moral code that would keep them from turning and destroying us (that is, when they aren’t explicitly designed to do so).

I wonder about this conceptual gap—convenient as it may be in narrative terms—given that Isaac Asimov, one of the forefathers of robot fiction invented just such a moral code. In the video above, he outlines it (with his odd pronunciation of “robot”). The code consists of three laws; in his fiction these are hardwired into each robot’s “positronic brain,” a fictional computer that gives robots something of a human-like consciousness.

First Law: A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.

Second Law: A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such orders would conflict with the First Law.

Third Law: A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law.

Isaac Asimov devoted a good deal of his writing career to the subject of robots, so it’s safe to say, he’d done quite a bit of thinking about how they would fit into the worlds he invented. In doing so, Asimov had to solve the problem of how robots would interact with humans once they had some degree of free will. But are his three laws sufficient? Many of Asimov’s stories—I, Robot, for example—turn on some failure or confusion between them. And even for their chase scenes, explosions, and melodrama, the three screen explorations of artificial life mentioned above thoughtfully exploit philosophical ambiguities and insufficiencies in Asimov’s simple system.

For one thing, while Asimov’s robots were hunks of metal, taking only vaguely humanoid form, the robots of our current imaginings emerge from an uncanny valley with realistic skin and hair or even a genetic code and circulatory system. They are possible sexual partners, friends and lovers, co-workers and superiors. They can deceive us as to their nature (a fourth law by Bulgarian novelist Lyuben Dilov states that a robot “must establish its identity as a robot in all cases”); they can conceive children or desires their creators never intended. These differences beg important questions: how ethical are these laws? How feasible? When the singularity occurs, will Skynet become aware of itself and destroy us?

Unlike Asimov, we now live in a time where the questions have direct applicability to robots living among us, outside the pages of sci-fi. As Japanese and South Korean roboticists have found, the three laws cannot address what they call “open texture risk”— unpredictable interactions in unstructured environments. Humans rely on nuanced and often preconscious readings of complex social codes and the fine shades of meaning embedded in natural language; despite many advances, machines are still catching up. Whether or not they can successfully develop it is an open question, making humanoid robots with artificial intelligence an “open texture risk.” But as you can see from the video below, we’re perhaps much closer to Blade Runner or, of course, artificial intelligence than to the clunky, interstellar mining machines in Asimov’s fiction.

Josh Jones is a writer and musician based in Durham, NC.

Note: An earlier version of this post appeared on our site in 2012.

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Why Americans Stopped Reading Books

in Books, Education | August 21st, 2026

The kids can’t read. Such has been the implication, even the declaration, made by a wave of articles in recent years. But the statement needs some qualification: the kids in question are American; what they can’t read is entire books, especially literary fiction; and it isn’t just the kids in the first place. It would be the rare reader, especially of a site like Open Culture, who could resist feeling any despair when confronted with, say, a study finding that only five percent of college English majors tested could understand the opening of Bleak House. But the real problem is broader, as reflected by the framing of the Jared Henderson video above, “Why Everyone Stopped Reading.”

Henderson points to several explanatory factors. The first is the way many American schools teach reading: for a time, they abandoned the method of phonics, which starts with basic individual sounds and builds from there, and went all in on something called “whole language learning,” which was based on teaching students to “infer the meanings of words from context.” The idea was that, rather than relying on rote drilling, the new system could cultivate a natural love for reading in young students. “The only problem is that whole language learning didn’t work,” and the resulting drop in literacy rates surely has something to do with the dramatic falloff of reading in general.

Other U.S. educational reforms, such as the nationwide push toward short informational texts and standardized testing, which prioritized information extraction over textual engagement, must also share the blame. This has produced an abundance of, to borrow the headline of Rose Horowitch’s much-circulated Atlantic piece from 2024, “Elite College Students Who Can’t Read Books.” Those same students, of course, have all come of age in the time of the smartphone, which does provide us with an “endless stream of text,” albeit of low-to-nonexistent literary merit — to say nothing of the infinite scroll of hyper-stimulating short-form videos absorbing ever-greater proportions of daily life, and not just that of the young.

“Americans, once members of a proudly literate society, read much less than they used to,” writes Horowitch in a new, in-depth piece on the country’s “post-literacy.” “Fewer than half of all adults reported having read a book of any kind in 2022. Only 38 percent read a novel or short story.” At the same time, “gambling has become a more common leisure activity than reading a book: Last year, 57 percent of Americans placed a bet.” The now-mainstream notion that America (and, in time, the world) is reverting from a textual to an oral culture was first foreseen by the likes of Marshall McLuhan, Neil Postman, and Walter J. Ong. But many here in the twenty-first century might hear their condition described in a more relatable fashion by David Bowie, in his Tin Machine period, nearly forty years ago.

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Based in Seoul, Colin Marshall writes and broadcasts on cities, language, and culture. He’s the author of the newsletter Books on Cities as well as the books 한국 요약 금지 (No Summarizing Korea) and Korean Newtro. Follow him on the social network formerly known as Twitter at @colinmarshall.

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Umberto Eco’s Personal Library Opens to the Public: More Than 32,000 Books, Exactly as He Left Them

in Books, Literature | July 22nd, 2026

Umberto Eco’s The Name of the Rose sold so well that its English translator William Weaver could add an extension onto his Tuscan villa, which he called the “Eco Chamber.” The Biblioteca Eco, or Eco Library, whose ribbon-cutting earlier this month you can see in the Italian news clip just above, may not be as wittily named, but it’s a much more ambitious project. It was opened this year, the tenth anniversary of the famed philosopher, semiotician, novelist, and critic’s death, at the University of Bologna, where he was a professor from 1971 to 2007. Housing more than 32,000 books from his personal library in Milan (previously featured here on Open Culture, and the subject of its own feature-length documentary), it stands as an explorable concrete representation of his capacious mind.

So capacious was that mind, in fact, that the Eco Library actually comprises several libraries, chiefly the Rare Book Library and the much-subdivided Working Library. In them, one encounters sections “dedicated to literary genres, comics and popular culture, works by and about Umberto Eco” — including more than 2,000 editions and translations of his own books — “ancient and medieval philosophy, the history of ideas, semiotics, translation and theories of language,” says the University of Bologna’s magazine Unibo.

There are “Italian, French, English-language, German, Central European, Slavic, Latin American and many other literatures,” including works of “detective fiction and science fiction, popular literature and the feuilleton.” As anyone who’s read Eco’s essay on Peanuts might imagine, “his comic book collection is also of great importance.”

Indeed, as any fan would expect, Eco’s namesake library reflects not just the vast sweep of his humanistic interests and knowledge, but also his playful sense of eccentricity, and even grotesquerie. According to the Fondazione Umberto Eco, most of the volumes it contains “are marked by a distinctive ex libris,” an adaptation of a sixteenth-century woodcut that depicts a donkey on a cornucopia-topped latrine. “The animal plays a small pipe, setting in motion a merry dance of a dozen cavorting monkeys.” The books themselves have been painstakingly arranged just as Eco shelved them, in accordance with the “good neighbor” principle of placing seemingly unrelated titles in close proximity in order to reveal unexpected intellectual connections between them. The volumes from Eco’s country house in Monte Cerignone will also be incorporated into the collection, but as the man himself knew, the best libraries, like the best minds, are never truly complete.

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Based in Seoul, Colin Marshall writes and broadcasts on cities, language, and culture. He’s the author of the newsletter Books on Cities as well as the books 한국 요약 금지 (No Summarizing Korea) and Korean Newtro. Follow him on the social network formerly known as Twitter at @colinmarshall.

by Colin Marshall | Permalink | Make a Comment ( None ) |

The Radical, Unclassifiable Art of William Blake

in Art, Books, Poetry | July 17th, 2026

William Blake is a household name, or not far from it, but things get more complicated when it comes to professional description. He was a poet, a painter, and a printmaker, at least insofar as he wrote poetry, painted paintings, and made prints. But we can’t hope to attain even a basic understanding of his legacy if we regard him as one man who happened to have the energy to do three different things. In fact, the ostensibly separate artistic pursuits in which he engaged were but three aspects of a unified act of creation, resulting in the likes of Songs of Innocence and of Experience and his illuminated “prophetic books”: unclassifiable works by “the patron saint of unclassifiable artists.”

So Evan Puschak, better known as the Nerdwriter, labels him in his new video above. Blake made books, “which he designed, wrote, etched, colored, and printed himself, using a technique that he invented.” They “mix and synthesize categories, and as a result, the artwork of the late seventeen- and early eighteen-hundreds didn’t really know what to make of them.”

It didn’t help that the Royal Academy of Arts, founded when Blake was in adolescence, had laid down its own strict aesthetic, generic, and formal standards. Officially an engraver and accorded the lowly status thereof, Blake devoted his labors to realizing his elaborately idiosyncratic visions using images and words together in ways that no artist had done before.

This choice “to work as maker of words, maker of images, and crossbreeder of both, amounted to a decision to live in incommensurable neighborhoods of meaning,” writes The Cambridge Companion to William Blake author Morris Eaves as quoted by Puschak. Blake swam against the current “of modern human understanding, whose bedrock is the principle of specialization.” Today, nearly two centuries after his death, that principle still obtains, and in some ways more rigidly than ever. But his work remains, from the Songs and the prophetic books to his illustrations of classics like the Divine Comedy, Paradise Lost, and even the Biblical Book of Job, which he read as “the story of a man who believes, mistakenly, that salvation requires a slavish obedience to words written in a book.” With his rules, divisions, and categories, man has cut reality apart; through his art, Blake sought to make it whole again.

William Blake’s Hallucinatory Illustrations of John Milton’s Paradise Lost

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Based in Seoul, Colin Marshall writes and broadcasts on cities, language, and culture. He’s the author of the newsletter Books on Cities as well as the books 한국 요약 금지 (No Summarizing Korea) and Korean Newtro. Follow him on the social network formerly known as Twitter at @colinmarshall.

by Colin Marshall | Permalink | Make a Comment ( None ) |

Explore 1,300+ Beautiful Wildlife Illustrations from the 19th Century, Now Restored and Available Online

in Books, Nature | July 15th, 2026

Today, if you want to know about any of the flora or fauna that surround us, you have only to look it up online. After you get your fill of knowledge, you can decide whether or not you want to venture out into the world and see your object of interest in its natural environment (or a controlled simulation thereof). In the Victorian era, things worked a bit differently. Ideally, you’d have grown up in a household, or at least had access to an institution, with the complete set of The Naturalist’s Library, a series of more than 40 volumes on everything from the birds and the bees to the quadrupeds and the marsupialia. Printed in a relatively small format and priced at six shillings each, they brought the intellectual fruits of the naturalist’s enterprise closer to the reach of the everyman than ever before.

While these books offered a good deal of informative text, including memoirs from various famous naturalists of the time, their immediate attraction had more to do with their glorious illustrations, in which colored examples of each species popped right out of its black-and-white habitat. These more than 1,300 color plates, some of the finest that could be seen in any publication of similar scale in the mid-nineteenth century, presented an attractive project to the designer Nicholas Rougeux, whose work we’ve previously featured here on Open Culture.

Having already restored and created digital versions of Euclid’s Elements, Pierre-Joseph Redouté’s Les Roses and Les Liliacées, Elizabeth Twining’s Illustrations of the Natural Orders of Plants, and Daniel Berkeley Updike’s Printing Types, among other books, he’s now put online a complete reproduction of the Naturalist’s Library — with, as usual, a blog post about the painstaking restoration and digital re-creation process.

This time, Rougeux has included a section about his use of artificial intelligence, which actually did its part to bring The Naturalist’s Library to his attention in the first place. Not only did AI tools then help him unearth needed sources and fill in visual gaps, they also came in handy when he was brainstorming cover concepts for a printed version. Though Rougeux’s restoration is primarily a web site, free to all to explore, you can also buy your own handsome, large-format physical copy of Plates of the Naturalist’s Library for $295.11 USD.

Easier on the wallet is the series of posters he’s made with the same illustrations, each of which presents one of these categories of creatures great or small at a glance. The original Naturalist’s Library inspired generations to dedicate themselves to understanding the natural world; these new versions, whether in print, online, or on the wall, will no doubt encourage the enthusiasm of more than a few budding naturalists in the generations to come. Visit the reproduction of the Naturalist’s Library here.

Behold an Interactive Online Edition of Elizabeth Twining’s Illustrations of the Natural Orders of Plants (1868)

Ernst Haeckel’s Sublime Drawings of Flora & Fauna: The Beautiful Scientific Drawings That Influenced Europe’s Art Nouveau Movement (1889)

300,000 Wondrous Nature Illustrations Put Online by The Biodiversity Heritage Library

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Based in Seoul, Colin Marshall writes and broadcasts on cities, language, and culture. He’s the author of the newsletter Books on Cities as well as the books 한국 요약 금지 (No Summarizing Korea) and Korean Newtro. Follow him on the social network formerly known as Twitter at @colinmarshall.

by Colin Marshall | Permalink | Make a Comment ( None ) |

Discover J.R.R. Tolkien’s Personal Book Cover Designs for The Lord of the Rings Trilogy

Why AI Companies Are Buying—And Then Destroying—Old Books

The Art of Splendor Solis, the Most Glorious Illuminated Alchemical Manuscript of Them All

Isaac Asimov Explains His Three Laws of Robots: Do No Harm, Follow Orders, Survive, in That Order

Why Americans Stopped Reading Books

Umberto Eco’s Personal Library Opens to the Public: More Than 32,000 Books, Exactly as He Left Them

The Radical, Unclassifiable Art of William Blake

Explore 1,300+ Beautiful Wildlife Illustrations from the 19th Century, Now Restored and Available Online

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