We hear a great deal today about the potenÂtial causÂes of risÂing sea levÂels. At a cerÂtain point, natÂurÂal curiosÂiÂty brings out the oppoÂsite quesÂtion: what causÂes sea levÂels to fall? And for that matÂter, can a body of water so large simÂply vanÂish entireÂly? Such a thing did hapÂpen once, accordÂing to the PBS Eons video above. The stoÂry begins, from our perÂspecÂtive, with the disÂcovÂery about a decade ago of a giant rabÂbit — or rather of the bones of a giant rabÂbit, one “up to six times heavÂier than your averÂage cotÂtonÂtail” that “almost cerÂtainÂly couldÂn’t hop.” This odd, long-gone specÂiÂmen was dubbed NuralaÂgus rex: “the rabÂbit king of MinorÂca,” the modÂern-day island it ruled from about five milÂlion to three milÂlion years ago.
After livÂing for long periÂods of time on islands withÂout natÂurÂal predaÂtors, cerÂtain species take on unusuÂal proÂporÂtions. “But how did the norÂmal-size ancesÂtor of NuralaÂgus make it onto a MediterÂranean island in the first place?” The answer is that MinorÂca wasÂn’t always an island. In fact, “mega-deposits” of salt under the floor of the MediterÂranean sugÂgest that, “at one point in hisÂtoÂry, the MediterÂranean Sea must have evapÂoÂratÂed.” As often in our invesÂtiÂgaÂtion of the natÂurÂal world, one strange big quesÂtion leads to anothÂer even stranger and bigÂger one. GeolÂoÂgists’ long and comÂplex project of addressÂing it has led them to posit a forÂbidÂding-soundÂing event called the MessinÂian SalinÂiÂty CriÂsis, or MSC.
MSC-explainÂing theÂoÂries include a “globÂal coolÂing event” six milÂlion years ago whose creÂation of glacÂiÂers would have reduced the flow of water into the MediterÂranean, and “tecÂtonÂic events” that could have blocked off what we now know as the Strait of GibralÂtar. But the cause now best supÂportÂed by eviÂdence involves a comÂbiÂnaÂtion of shifts in the EarthÂ’s crust and changes in its cliÂmate — sixÂteen full cycles of them. “DurÂing periÂods of decreasÂing sea levÂel, the posiÂtion and angle of the Earth changed with respect to the Sun, so there were periÂods of lowÂer solar enerÂgy, and othÂers of highÂer solar enerÂgy, which increased evapÂoÂraÂtion rates in the MediterÂranean. At the same time, an activeÂly foldÂing and upliftÂing tecÂtonÂic belt caused water input to decrease.”
The MSC seems to have lastÂed for over 600,000 years. At its driÂest point, 5.6 milÂlion years ago, “exterÂnal water sources were comÂpleteÂly cut off, and most of the water left behind in the MediterÂranean basin was evapÂoÂratÂing.” For sea creaÂtures, the MediterÂranean became uninÂhabÂitÂable, but those that lived on dry land had a bit of a field day. These relÂaÂtiveÂly dry conÂdiÂtions “allowed hipÂpos, eleÂphants, and othÂer megafauÂna from Africa to walk and swim across the MediterÂranean,” conÂstiÂtutÂing a great migraÂtion that would have includÂed the ancesÂtor of NuralaÂgus rex. But when the sea latÂer filled back up — posÂsiÂbly due to a flood, as aniÂmatÂed above — the rabÂbit king of MinorÂca learned that, even on a geoÂlogÂiÂcal timescale, you can’t go home again.
Based in Seoul, ColÂin MarÂshall writes and broadÂcasts on cities, lanÂguage, and culÂture. His projects include the SubÂstack newsletÂterBooks on Cities, the book The StateÂless City: a Walk through 21st-CenÂtuÂry Los AngeÂles and the video series The City in CinÂeÂma. FolÂlow him on TwitÂter at @colinmarshall or on FaceÂbook.
The fate of the visionÂary is to be forÂevÂer outÂside of his or her time. Such was the life of NikoÂla TesÂla, who dreamed the future while his opporÂtunisÂtic rival Thomas EdiÂson seized the moment. Even now the name TesÂla conÂjures seemÂingÂly wildÂly impracÂtiÂcal venÂtures, too advanced, too expenÂsive, or far too eleÂgant in design for mass proÂducÂtion and conÂsumpÂtion. No one betÂter than David Bowie, the pop artist of posÂsiÂbilÂiÂty, could embody TesÂla’s air of magÂisÂteÂrÂiÂal high seriÂousÂness on the screen. And few were betÂter suitÂed than TesÂla himÂself, perÂhaps, to extrapÂoÂlate from his time to ours and see the techÂnoÂlogÂiÂcal future clearÂly.
Of course, this image of TesÂla as a lone, heroÂic, and even someÂwhat tragÂic figÂure who fell vicÂtim to EdisÂon’s designs is a bit of a romanÂtic exagÂgerÂaÂtion. As even the ediÂtor of a 1935 feaÂture interÂview piece in the now-defunct LibÂerÂty magÂaÂzine wrote, TesÂla and EdiÂson may have been rivals in the “batÂtle between alterÂnatÂing and direct curÂrent…. OthÂerÂwise the two men were mereÂly oppoÂsites. EdiÂson had a genius for pracÂtiÂcal invenÂtions immeÂdiÂateÂly applicÂaÂble. TesÂla, whose invenÂtions were far ahead of the time, aroused antagÂoÂnisms which delayed the fruition of his ideas for years.” One can in some respects see why TesÂla “aroused antagÂoÂnisms.” He may have been a genius, but he was not a peoÂple perÂson, and some of his views, though maybe charÂacÂterÂisÂtic of the times, are downÂright unsetÂtling.
In the lengthy LibÂerÂty essay, “as told to George Sylvester Viereck” (a poet and Nazi symÂpaÂthizÂer who also interÂviewed Hitler), TesÂla himÂself makes the proÂnounceÂment, “It seems that I have always been ahead of my time.” He then goes on to enuÂmerÂate some of the ways he has been proven right, and conÂfiÂdentÂly lists the charÂacÂterÂisÂtics of the future as he sees it. No one likes a know-it-all, but TesÂla refused to comÂproÂmise or ingraÂtiÂate himÂself, though he sufÂfered for it proÂfesÂsionÂalÂly. And he was, in many casÂes, right. Many of his 1935 preÂdicÂtions in LibÂerÂty are still too far off to meaÂsure, and some of them will seem outÂlandish, or crimÂiÂnal, to us today. But some still seem plauÂsiÂble, and a few advisÂable if we are to make it anothÂer 100 years as a species. TesÂla’s preÂdicÂtions include the folÂlowÂing, which he introÂduces with the disÂclaimer that “foreÂcastÂing is perÂilous. No man can look very far into the future.”
“BudÂdhism and ChrisÂtianÂiÂty… will be the reliÂgion of the human race in the twenÂty-first cenÂtuÂry.”
“The year 2100 will see eugenÂics uniÂverÂsalÂly estabÂlished.” TesÂla went on to comÂment, “no one who is not a desirÂable parÂent should be perÂmitÂted to proÂduce progÂeÂny. A cenÂtuÂry from now it will no more occur to a norÂmal perÂson to mate with a perÂson eugeniÂcalÂly unfit than to marÂry a habitÂuÂal crimÂiÂnal.”
“Hygiene, physÂiÂcal culÂture will be recÂogÂnized branchÂes of eduÂcaÂtion and govÂernÂment. The SecÂreÂtary of Hygiene or PhysÂiÂcal CulÂture will be far more imporÂtant in the cabÂiÂnet of the PresÂiÂdent of the UnitÂed States who holds office in the year 2025 than the SecÂreÂtary of War.” Along with perÂsonÂal hygiene, TesÂla includÂed “polÂluÂtion” as a social ill in need of regÂuÂlaÂtion.
“I am conÂvinced that withÂin a cenÂtuÂry cofÂfee, tea, and tobacÂco will be no longer in vogue. AlcoÂhol, howÂevÂer, will still be used. It is not a stimÂuÂlant but a verÂiÂtaÂble elixir of life.”
“There will be enough wheat and wheat prodÂucts to feed the entire world, includÂing the teemÂing milÂlions of ChiÂna and India.” (TesÂla did not foreÂsee the anti-gluten mania of the 21st cenÂtuÂry.)
“Long before the next cenÂtuÂry dawns, sysÂtemÂatÂic reforÂestaÂtion and the sciÂenÂtifÂic manÂageÂment of natÂurÂal resources will have made an end of all devÂasÂtatÂing droughts, forÂest fires, and floods. The uniÂverÂsal utiÂlizaÂtion of water powÂer and its long-disÂtance transÂmisÂsion will supÂply every houseÂhold with cheap powÂer.” Along with this optiÂmistic preÂdicÂtion, TesÂla foreÂsaw that “the strugÂgle for exisÂtence being lessÂened, there should be develÂopÂment along ideÂal rather than mateÂrÂiÂal lines.”
TesÂla goes on to preÂdict the elimÂiÂnaÂtion of war, “by makÂing every nation, weak or strong, able to defend itself,” after which war chests would be divertÂed to fundÂing eduÂcaÂtion and research. He then describes—in rather fanÂtasÂtiÂcal-soundÂing terms—an appaÂraÂtus that “projects parÂtiÂcles” and transÂmits enerÂgy, enabling not only a revÂoÂluÂtion in defense techÂnolÂoÂgy, but “undreamed of results in teleÂviÂsion.” TesÂla diagÂnoses his time as one in which “we sufÂfer from the derangeÂment of our civÂiÂlizaÂtion because we have not yet comÂpleteÂly adjustÂed ourÂselves to the machine age.” The soluÂtion, he asserts—along with most futurÂists, then and now—“does not lie in destroyÂing but in masÂterÂing the machine.” As an examÂple of such masÂtery, TesÂla describes the future of “automaÂtons” takÂing over human labor and the creÂation of “a thinkÂing machine.”
When wireÂless is perÂfectÂly applied the whole earth will be conÂvertÂed into a huge brain, which in fact it is…. We shall be able to comÂmuÂniÂcate with one anothÂer instantÂly, irreÂspecÂtive of disÂtance. Not only this, but through teleÂviÂsion and teleÂphoÂny we shall see and hear one anothÂer as perÂfectÂly as though were face to face, despite interÂvenÂing disÂtances of thouÂsands of miles; and the instruÂments through which we shall be able to do this will be amazÂingÂly simÂple comÂpared with our present teleÂphone. A man will be able to carÂry one in his vest pockÂet.
TelÂsa also made some odd preÂdicÂtions about fuel-less pasÂsenÂger flyÂing machines “free from any limÂiÂtaÂtions of the present airÂplanes and diriÂgiÂbles” and spoutÂed more of the scary stuff about eugenÂics that had come to obsess him late in life. AddiÂtionÂalÂly, TesÂla saw changÂing genÂder relaÂtions as the preÂcurÂsor of a comÂing matriÂarchy. This was not a develÂopÂment he charÂacÂterÂized in posÂiÂtive terms. For TesÂla, femÂiÂnism would “end in a new sex order, with the female as supeÂriÂor.” (As Novak notes, TesÂla’s misÂgivÂings about femÂiÂnism have made him a hero to the so-called “men’s rights” moveÂment.) While he fulÂly grantÂed that women could and would match and surÂpass men in every field, he warned that “the acquiÂsiÂtion of new fields of endeavÂor by women, their gradÂual usurpaÂtion of leadÂerÂship, will dull and finalÂly disÂsiÂpate femÂiÂnine senÂsiÂbilÂiÂties, will choke the materÂnal instinct, so that marÂriage and mothÂerÂhood may become abhorÂrent and human civÂiÂlizaÂtion draw closÂer and closÂer to the perÂfect civÂiÂlizaÂtion of the bee.”
It seems to me that a “bee civÂiÂlizaÂtion” would appeal to a eugeniÂcist, except, I supÂpose, TesÂla feared becomÂing a drone. Although he saw the develÂopÂment as inevitable, he still sounds to me like any numÂber of curÂrent politiÂcians who argue that sociÂety should conÂtinÂue to supÂpress and disÂcrimÂiÂnate against women for their own good and the good of “civÂiÂlizaÂtion.” TesÂla may be an outÂsider hero for geek culÂture everyÂwhere, but his social attiÂtudes give me the creeps. While I’ve perÂsonÂalÂly always liked the vision of a world in which robots do most the work and we spend most of our monÂey on eduÂcaÂtion, when it comes to the elimÂiÂnaÂtion of war, I’m less sanÂguine about parÂtiÂcle rays and more symÂpaÂthetÂic to the words of Ivor CutÂler.
Note: An earÂliÂer verÂsion of this post appeared on our site in 2015.
ParÂticÂuÂlarÂly if SpaceX CEO Elon Musk achieves his goal of estabÂlishÂing a perÂmaÂnent human presÂence on Mars.
SureÂly at some point in their long travÂels to and resÂiÂdence on Mars, those pioÂneers would get down to busiÂness in much the same way that rats, fruit flies, parÂaÂsitic wasps, and JapanÂese rice fish have while under obserÂvaÂtion on priÂor space expeÂdiÂtions.
MeanÂwhile, we’re seriÂousÂly lackÂing in human data.
A pair of human astroÂnauts, Jan Davis and Mark Lee, made hisÂtoÂry in 1992 as the first marÂried couÂple to enter space togethÂer, but NASA insistÂed their relaÂtions remained strictÂly proÂfesÂsionÂal for the duraÂtion, and that a shutÂtle’s crew comÂpartÂment is too small for the sort of antics a nasty-mindÂed pubÂlic kept askÂing about.
In an interÂview with Mens Health, Colonel Mike MulÂlane, a vetÂerÂan of three space misÂsions, conÂfirmed that a spaceÂcraft’s layÂout doesÂn’t favor romance:
The only priÂvaÂcy would have been in the air lock, but everyÂbody would know what you were doing. You’re not out there doing a spaceÂwalk. There’s no reaÂson to be in there.
ShortÂly after Davis and Lee returned to earth, NASA forÂmalÂized an unspoÂken rule proÂhibitÂing husÂbands and wives from venÂturÂing into space togethÂer. It did litÂtle to squelch pubÂlic interÂest in space sex.
One wonÂders if NASA’s rule has been rewritÂten in accorÂdance with the times. Air lock aside, might same sex couÂples remain free to swing what hetÂero-norÂmaÂtive marÂrieds (arguably) canÂnot?
This is but one of hunÂdreds of space sex quesÂtions begÂging furÂther conÂsidÂerÂaÂtion.
Some of the most seriÂous are raised in Tom McCarten’s witÂty colÂlage aniÂmaÂtion for FiveThirÂtyEight, above.
NameÂly how damÂagÂing will cosÂmic radiÂaÂtion and microÂgravÂiÂty prove to human reproÂducÂtion? As more humans toy with the posÂsiÂbilÂiÂty of leavÂing Earth, this quesÂtion feels less and less hypoÂthetÂiÂcal.
Yet sciÂenÂtifÂic studÂies of non-human space travÂelÂers docÂuÂment a host of reproÂducÂtive issues includÂing lowÂered libido, atypÂiÂcal horÂmone levÂels, ovuÂlaÂtoÂry dysÂfuncÂtion, misÂcarÂriages, and fetal mutaÂtions.
On its webÂpage, NASA proÂvides some inforÂmaÂtion about the ReproÂducÂtion, DevelÂopÂment, and Sex DifÂferÂences LabÂoÂraÂtoÂry of its Space BioÂsciences Research Branch, but remains mum on topÂics of pressÂing conÂcern to, say, stuÂdents in a typÂiÂcal midÂdle school sex ed class.
In PhysÂiÂolÂoÂgy News MagÂaÂzine, Dr. Adam Watkins, assoÂciate proÂfesÂsor of ReproÂducÂtive and DevelÂopÂmenÂtal PhysÂiÂolÂoÂgy at the UniÂverÂsiÂty of NotÂtingÂham, sugÂgests that interÂnal and exterÂnal atmosÂpherÂic changes would make such things, parÂdon the pun, hard:
FirstÂly, just stayÂing in close conÂtact with each othÂer under zero gravÂiÂty is hard. SecÂondÂly, as astroÂnauts expeÂriÂence lowÂer blood presÂsure while in space, mainÂtainÂing erecÂtions and arousal are more probÂlemÂatÂic than here on Earth.
The excepÂtionÂalÂly forthÂright Col MulÂlane has some conÂtraÂdicÂtoÂry first hand expeÂriÂence that should come as a relief to all humankind:
A couÂple of times, I would wake up from sleep periÂods and I had a bonÂer that I could have drilled through krypÂtonite.
Watch above a clasÂsic movie made by David Rogers at VanÂderÂbilt UniÂverÂsiÂty in the 1950s. It shows “a neuÂtrophil (a type of white blood cell) chasÂing a bacÂteriÂum through a field of red blood cells in a blood smear. After purÂsuÂing the bacÂteriÂum around sevÂerÂal red blood cells, the neuÂtrophil finalÂly catchÂes up to and engulfs its prey. In the human body, these cells are an imporÂtant first line of defense against bacÂteÂrÂiÂal infecÂtion. The speed of rapid moveÂments such as cell crawlÂing can be most easÂiÂly meaÂsured by the method of direct obserÂvaÂtion.” This comÂfortÂing video comes courÂtesy of the estate of David Rogers, VanÂderÂbilt UniÂverÂsiÂty.
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“Where’re you from?” one charÂacÂter asks anothÂer on the FireÂsign TheÂatre’s clasÂsic 1969 album How Can You Be in Two Places at Once When You’re Not AnyÂwhere at All. “NairoÂbi, ma’am,” the othÂer replies. “Isn’t everyÂbody?” Like most of the countÂless mulÂti-layÂered gags on their albums, this one makes a culÂturÂal refÂerÂence, preÂsumÂably to the disÂcovÂerÂies made by famed paleÂoanÂthroÂpolÂoÂgists Louis and Mary Leakey over the preÂviÂous 20 years. Their disÂcovÂery of fosÂsils in Kenya and elseÂwhere did much to advance the theÂsis that humankind evolved in Africa, and that the process was hapÂpenÂing more than 1.75 milÂlion years before.
Like all sciÂenÂtifÂic breakÂthroughs, the Leakeys’ work only promptÂed more quesÂtions — or rather, creÂatÂed more opporÂtuÂniÂties for refinÂing and adding detail to the relÂeÂvant body of knowlÂedge. SubÂseÂquent digs all over Africa have proÂduced furÂther eviÂdence of how far our species and its preÂdeÂcesÂsors go back, and where exactÂly the evoÂluÂtionÂary progress hapÂpened.
Just this month, Nature pubÂlished a new paper on the “age of the oldÂest known Homo sapiÂens from eastÂern Africa.” These new findÂings about known fosÂsils, origÂiÂnalÂly disÂcovÂered in southÂwestÂern Ethiopia in 1967, sugÂgest that the time has come for anothÂer reviÂsion of the long pre-hisÂtoÂry of humanÂiÂty.
The paper’s authors, writes Reuters’ Will DunÂham, “used the geoÂchemÂiÂcal finÂgerÂprints of a thick layÂer of ash found above the sedÂiÂments conÂtainÂing the fosÂsils to ascerÂtain that it resultÂed from an erupÂtion that spewed volÂcanic fallÂout over a wide swathe of Ethiopia roughÂly 233,000 years ago.” These fosÂsils “include a rather comÂplete craÂnial vault and lowÂer jaw, some verÂteÂbrae and parts of the arms and legs.” After their iniÂtial disÂcovÂery by the late Richard Leakey, son of Louis and Mary (and a man genÂuineÂly from NairoÂbi, born and raised), the fosÂsils buried by this preÂhisÂtoric VesuÂvius were preÂviÂousÂly believed to be “no more than about 200,000 years old.”
DunÂham quotes the paper’s lead author, UniÂverÂsiÂty of CamÂbridge volÂcaÂnolÂoÂgist Celine Vidal, as sayÂing this disÂcovÂery aligns with “the most recent sciÂenÂtifÂic modÂels of human evoÂluÂtion placÂing the emerÂgence of Homo sapiÂens someÂtime between 350,000 to 200,000 years ago.” Though Vidal and her team’s analyÂsis of the ash’s geoÂchemÂiÂcal comÂpoÂsiÂtion has deterÂmined the minÂiÂmum age of Omo I, as these fosÂsils are known, the maxÂiÂmum age remains an open quesÂtion. Or at least, it awaits the efforts of researchers to date the “ash layÂer below the sedÂiÂment conÂtainÂing the fosÂsils” and renÂder a more preÂcise estiÂmate. And when that’s estabÂlished, it will then, ideÂalÂly, become mateÂrÂiÂal for the next big absurÂdist comÂeÂdy troupe.
Based in Seoul, ColÂin MarÂshall writes and broadÂcasts on cities and culÂture. His projects include the book The StateÂless City: a Walk through 21st-CenÂtuÂry Los AngeÂles and the video series The City in CinÂeÂma. FolÂlow him on TwitÂter at @colinmarshall or on FaceÂbook.
After sevÂerÂal years of writÂing and perÂformÂing songs influÂenced by such sources as authors Edward Gorey and RayÂmond ChanÂdler, filmÂmakÂer Tim BurÂton, and murÂder balÂlads in the AmerÂiÂcan folk traÂdiÂtion, Ellia Bisker and JefÂfrey MorÂris, known colÂlecÂtiveÂly as CharmÂing DisÂasÂter, began castÂing around for a sinÂgle, existÂing narÂraÂtive that could susÂtain an album’s worth of origÂiÂnal tunes.
The result is Our Lady of RadiÂum, a nine song exploÂration of Curie’s life and work.
The crowdÂfundÂed album, recordÂed durÂing the panÂdemÂic, is so exhausÂtiveÂly researched that the accomÂpaÂnyÂing illusÂtratÂed bookÂlet includes a bibÂliÂogÂraÂphy with titles rangÂing from David I. Harvie’s techÂniÂcalÂly dense DeadÂly SunÂshine: The HisÂtoÂry and Fatal LegaÂcy of RadiÂum to DebÂoÂrah Blum’s The PoiÂsonÂer’s HandÂbook, described by The New York ObservÂer as “a vicious, page-turnÂing stoÂry that reads more like RayÂmond ChanÂdler than Madame Curie.”
A chapÂter in the The PoiÂsonÂer’s HandÂbook introÂduced Bisker and MorÂris to the RadiÂum Girls, young workÂers whose proÂlonged expoÂsure to radiÂum-based paint in earÂly 20th-cenÂtuÂry clock facÂtoÂries had horÂrifÂic conÂseÂquences.
Each girl proÂcured a tray conÂtainÂing twenÂty-four watch dials and the mateÂrÂiÂal to be used to paint the numerÂals upon them so that they would appear lumiÂnous. The mateÂrÂiÂal was a powÂder, of about the conÂsisÂtenÂcy of cosÂmetÂic powÂder, and conÂsistÂed of phosÂphoÂresÂcent zinc sulÂphide mixed with radiÂum sulphate…The powÂder was poured from the vial into a small porceÂlain cruÂcible, about the size of a thimÂble. A quanÂtiÂty of gum araÂbic, as an adheÂsive, and a thinÂner of water were then added, and this was stirred with a small glass rod until a paintÂlike subÂstance resultÂed. In the course of a workÂing week each girl paintÂed the dials conÂtained on twenÂty-two to forty-four such trays, dependÂing upon the speed with which she worked, and used a vial of powÂder for each tray. When the paint-like subÂstance was proÂduced a girl would employ it in paintÂing the figÂures on a watch dial. There were fourÂteen numerÂals, the figÂure six being omitÂted. In the paintÂing each girl used a very fine brush of camel’s hair conÂtainÂing about thirÂty hairs. In order to obtain the fine lines which the work required, a girl would place the brisÂtles in her mouth, and by the action of her tongue and lips bring the brisÂtles to a fine point. The brush was then dipped into the paint, the figÂures paintÂed upon the dial until more paint was required or until the paint on the brush dried and hardÂened, when the brush was dipped into a small cruÂcible of water. This water remained in the cruÂcible withÂout change for a day or perÂhaps two days. The brush would then be repointÂed in the mouth and dipped into the paint or even repointÂed in such manÂner after being dipped into the paint itself, in a conÂtinÂuÂous process.
The band found themÂselves hauntÂed by the RadiÂum Girls’ stoÂry:
PartÂly it’s that it seemed like a realÂly good job — it was clean work, it was less physÂiÂcalÂly taxÂing and paid betÂter than facÂtoÂry or mill jobs, the workÂing enviÂronÂment was nice — and the workÂers were all young women. They were excitÂed about this sweet gig, and then it betrayed them, poiÂsonÂing them and cutÂting their lives short in a horÂriÂble way.
There were all these details we learned that we couldÂn’t stop thinkÂing about. Like the fact that radiÂum gets takÂen up by bone, which then starts to disÂinÂteÂgrate because radiÂum isn’t as hard as calÂciÂum. The RadiÂum Girls’ jaw boneswere crumÂbling away, because they (were instructÂed) to use their lips to point the brushÂes when paintÂing watch faces with radiÂum-based paint.
The radiÂum they absorbed was irraÂdiÂatÂing them from inside, from withÂin their own bones.
RadiÂum decays into radon, and it was evenÂtuÂalÂly disÂcovÂered that the radiÂum girls were exhalÂing radon gas. They could expose a phoÂtoÂgraphÂic plate by breathÂing on it. Those images—the bones and the breath—stuck with us in parÂticÂuÂlar.
FelÂlow musiÂcian, Omer Gal, of the “theÂatriÂcal freak folk musiÂcal menagerie” CookÂie Tongue, heightÂens the sense of dread in his chillÂing stop-motion aniÂmaÂtion for Our Lady of RadiÂum’s first music video, above. There’s no quesÂtion that a tragÂic fate awaits the crumÂbling, uncomÂpreÂhendÂing litÂtle workÂer.
Before their physÂiÂcal sympÂtoms startÂed to manÂiÂfest, the RadiÂum Girls believed what they had been told — that the radiÂum-based paint they used on the timeÂpieces’ faces and hands posed no threat to their well being.
ComÂpoundÂing the probÂlem, the paint’s glow-in-the-dark propÂerÂties proved irreÂsistible to high-spirÂitÂed teens, as the niece of MarÂgaret “Peg” Looney — 17 when she startÂed work at the IlliÂnois RadiÂum Dial ComÂpaÂny (now a SuperÂfund Site) — recountÂed to NPR:
I can rememÂber my famÂiÂly talkÂing about my aunt bringÂing home the litÂtle vials (of radiÂum paint.) They would go into their bedÂroom with the lights off and paint their finÂgerÂnails, their eyeÂlids, their lips and then they’d laugh at each othÂer because they glowed in the dark.
Looney died at 24, havÂing sufÂfered from aneÂmia, debilÂiÂtatÂing hip pain, and the loss of teeth and bits of her jaw. Although her famÂiÂly harÂbored susÂpiÂcions as to the cause of her bewilÂderÂing decline, no attorÂney would take their case. They latÂer learned that the IlliÂnois RadiÂum Dial ComÂpaÂny had arranged for medÂical tests to be perÂformed on workÂers, withÂout truthÂfulÂly advisÂing them of the results.
EvenÂtuÂalÂly, the mountÂing death toll made the conÂnecÂtion between workÂers’ health and the workÂplace imposÂsiÂble to ignore. LawÂsuits such as La Porte v. UnitÂed States RadiÂum CorÂpoÂraÂtion led to improved indusÂtriÂal safeÂty regÂuÂlaÂtions and othÂer labor reforms.
Too late, CharmÂing DisÂasÂter notes, for the RadiÂum Girls themÂselves:
(Our song) RadiÂum Girls is dedÂiÂcatÂed to the young women who were unwitÂtingÂly poiÂsoned by their work and who were ignored and maligned in seekÂing jusÂtice. Their plight led to laws and safeÂguards that evenÂtuÂalÂly became the occuÂpaÂtionÂal safeÂty proÂtecÂtions we have today. Of course that is still a batÂtle that’s being fought, but it startÂed with them. We wantÂed to pay tribÂute to these young women, honÂor their memÂoÂry, and give them a voice.
PreÂorder CharmÂing Disaster’s Our Lady of RadiÂumhere.
When NASA spent close to a bilÂlion dolÂlars on the VoyÂager proÂgram, launchÂing a pair of probes from Cape CanaverÂal in 1977, its priÂmaÂry purÂpose was not to find intelÂliÂgent extra-terÂresÂtriÂal life. The proÂgram grew out of ambiÂtions for a “Grand Tour”: four robotÂic probes that would visÂit all the planÂets in the outÂer solar sysÂtem, takÂing advanÂtage of a 175-year alignÂment of Jupiter and SatÂurn. A downÂsized verÂsion proÂduced VoyÂager 1 and 2, each craft “a miniaÂture marÂvel,” writes the Attic. “WeighÂing less than a VolkÂswaÂgen, each had 65,000 parts. Six thrusters powÂered by pluÂtoÂniÂum. Three gyroÂscopes. AssortÂed instruÂments to meaÂsure gravÂiÂty, radiÂaÂtion, magÂnetÂic fields, and more. Design and assemÂbly took years.”
Since reachÂing Jupiter in 1979, the two probes have sent back astonÂishÂing images from the great gas giants and the very edges of the solar sysÂtem. “By 2030, VoyÂager 1 and 2 will cease comÂmuÂniÂcaÂtions for good,” says Cory ZapÂatÂka in the Verge SciÂence video above, “and while they won’t be able to beam inforÂmaÂtion back to Earth, they’re going to conÂtinÂue sailÂing through space at almost 60,000 kiloÂmeÂters per hour,” reachÂing interÂstelÂlar unknowns their makÂers will nevÂer see. VoyÂager 1 was only supÂposed to last 10 years. In 2012, it left the solar sysÂtem, to drift, along with its twin, “endÂlessÂly among the stars of our galaxy,” TimÂoÂthy FerÂris writes in The New YorkÂer, “unless someÂone or someÂthing encounÂters them someÂday.”
As deep space detriÂtus, the probes will make excelÂlent carÂriÂers for an interÂstelÂlar mesÂsage in a botÂtle, the VoyÂager team reaÂsoned. The idea promptÂed the creÂation of the GoldÂen Record, an LP fitÂted to each probe conÂtainÂing a mesÂsage from humanÂiÂty to the cosÂmos. “Etched in copÂper, platÂed with gold, and sealed in aluÂminum casÂes, the records are expectÂed to remain intelÂliÂgiÂble for more than a bilÂlion years, makÂing them the longest-lastÂing objects ever craftÂed by human hands.” ProÂduced by FerÂris and overÂseen by Carl Sagan and a team includÂing his future wife, Ann Druyan, the GoldÂen Record includes the work of Mozart, Chuck Berry, folk music from around the world, the sounds of waves and whales, and one of the most uniÂverÂsal of human sounds, laughÂter (likeÂly that of Sagan himÂself).
The GoldÂen Record also includes 115 images, etched into its very surÂface. No, they are not digÂiÂtal files. “There are no jpegs or tifs includÂed on it,” says ZapÂatÂka. After all, “The Voyager’s comÂputÂer sysÂtems were only 69 kiloÂbytes large, bareÂly enough for one image, let alone 115.” These are anaÂlog still phoÂtographs and diaÂgrams that must be reconÂstructÂed with mathÂeÂmatÂiÂcal forÂmuÂlae extractÂed from elecÂtronÂic tones. The process starts with the diaÂgrams on the record’s covÂer — simÂple icons that conÂtain an incredÂiÂble denÂsiÂty of inforÂmaÂtion. We begin with two cirÂcles joined by a line. They are hydroÂgen atoms, the most plenÂtiÂful gas in the uniÂverse, underÂgoÂing a change that occurs sponÂtaÂneousÂly once every 10 milÂlion years.
DurÂing this rare occurÂrence, the hydroÂgen atoms emit enerÂgy at waveÂlengths of 21 cenÂtimeÂters. This meaÂsureÂment is used as “a conÂstant for all the othÂer symÂbols on the record.” That’s an awful lot of backÂground knowlÂedge required to deciÂpher what look to the sciÂenÂtifÂiÂcalÂly untrained eye like a pair of tiny eyes behind a pair of odd eyeÂglassÂes. But for spaceÂfarÂing aliens, “how hard could that be?” says Bill Nye above in an abridged descripÂtion of how to decode the GoldÂen Record. We may nevÂer, in a bilÂlion years, know if any extra-terÂresÂtriÂal species ever finds the record and makes the attempt. But the GoldÂen Record has become as much an object of fasÂciÂnaÂtion for humans as it is a greetÂing from Earth to the galaxy. Learn more from NASA here about the images encodÂed on the GoldÂen Record and order your own reproÂducÂtion (on LP or CD) here.
From the BBC: “DurÂing the Late CreÂtaÂceous, winged preÂhisÂtoric creaÂtures called pterosaurs domÂiÂnatÂed the air. They were the first verÂteÂbrates to masÂter flight. They were not dinosaurs but closeÂly relatÂed. Some were tiny, but some were the biggest creaÂtures ever to have flown. We ask a quesÂtion you’ve all been wonÂderÂing, could we ride one, and if so, how?” In the aniÂmaÂtion above, sciÂence proÂducÂer PierangeÂlo Pirak explores some ideas Dr. Liz MarÂtin-SilÂverÂstone, a palaeonÂtolÂoÂgist with a keen interÂest in bioÂmeÂchanÂics. She runs the PalaeoÂbiÂolÂoÂgy LabÂoÂraÂtoÂries, includÂing the XTM ImagÂing FacilÂiÂty for microCT scanÂning and imagÂing analyÂsis, at the UniÂverÂsiÂty of BrisÂtol.
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